From Book News, Inc.
Not here are such questions as how to find world peace, the relative influence of nature and nurture, or why a few people are so filthy rich while so many are dirt poor. Rather Vacca, an information technology consultant with a background at the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration, looks at current debates in astronomy and cosmology, physics and astrophysics, biology and paleontology, neuroscience, geology, chemistry, and energy.Copyright © 2004 Book News, Inc., Portland, OR
Book Description
Featuring Original Contributions from Dr. Stephen Hawking Unfold the mysteries that vex the greatest minds in science Gain extensive knowledge of the most challenging scientific problems and learn from more than 60 of the world’s foremost scientists—among them, 40 Nobel laureates! Expand your horizons with a wide range of advanced scientific theories and techniques on problems concerning: Permanently storing nuclear waste or eliminating it altogether Harvesting energy from a reaction similar to that of the sun Earthquake prediction The creation of the universe Comprehension of free will The mystery of dark matter The cosmological constant problem The construction of a consistent quantum theory of gravity And much more Science has reached dazzling heights of discovery, transforming civilization in the process. And yet, some of the most fundamental questions remain unsolved! In The World’s 20 Greatest Unsolved Problems, John Vacca—together with more than 60 of the world’s most highly respected scientists—explains these problems in detail and describes the intellectual and technological hurdles to be overcome in order to solve them. This book is indispensable for science buffs, teachers, students, and scientists who want to keep pace with the latest developments. The World’s 20 Greatest Unsolved Problems delves deep into mysteries such as the creation of the universe, dark matter, the quantum theory of gravity, protein folding, free will, consciousness, earthquake prediction, Fullerenes, the quantum mechanical vacuum, storing or eliminating nuclear waste, and more. No other resource explains science’s most compelling dilemmas with such clarity and authority, and nowhere else can you share the expertise of so many brilliant minds! You’ll find Complex topics made intelligible, as only experts in their fields can Coverage of the key problems expected to dominate the next 40 years of scientific research The World’s 20 Greatest Unsolved Problems is must reading for anyone teaching science or performing scientific research. It also will fascinate the moderately technical reader or scientific novice.
From the Back Cover
Featuring Original Contributions from Dr. Stephen HawkingUnfold the mysteries that vex the greatest minds in science
Gain extensive knowledge of the most challenging scientific problems and learn from more than 60 of the world’s foremost scientists—among them, 40 Nobel laureates! Expand your horizons with a wide range of advanced scientific theories and techniques on problems concerning: Permanently storing nuclear waste or eliminating it altogether Harvesting energy from a reaction similar to that of the sun Earthquake prediction The creation of the universe Comprehension of free will The mystery of dark matter The cosmological constant problem The construction of a consistent quantum theory of gravity And much more
Science has reached dazzling heights of discovery, transforming civilization in the process. And yet, some of the most fundamental questions remain unsolved! In The World’s 20 Greatest Unsolved Problems, John Vacca—together with more than 60 of the world’s most highly respected scientists—explains these problems in detail and describes the intellectual and technological hurdles to be overcome in order to solve them.
This book is indispensable for science buffs, teachers, students, and scientists who want to keep pace with the latest developments. The World’s 20 Greatest Unsolved Problems delves deep into mysteries such as the creation of the universe, dark matter, the quantum theory of gravity, protein folding, free will, consciousness, earthquake prediction, Fullerenes, the quantum mechanical vacuum, storing or eliminating nuclear waste, and more. No other resource explains science’s most compelling dilemmas with such clarity and authority, and nowhere else can you share the expertise of so many brilliant minds! You’ll find Complex topics made intelligible, as only experts in their fields can Coverage of the key problems expected to dominate the next 40 years of scientific research
The World’s 20 Greatest Unsolved Problems is must reading for anyone teaching science or performing scientific research. It also will fascinate the moderately technical reader or scientific novice.
About the Author
John R. Vacca is an information technology consultant and internationally known, best-selling author based in Pomeroy, Ohio. Since 1982, John has authored 42 books and more than 550 articles. John has a rich background in technology and science as a former configuration management specialist, computer specialist, and the computer security official (CSO) for NASA’s space station program (Freedom) and the international space station program, from 1988 until his early retirement from NASA in 1995. John was also one of the security consultants for the MGM movie AntiTrust, which was released on January 12, 2001. In addition to his many writing projects, John is a freelance editorial reviewer for online retailers.
Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.
Science has extended life, conquered disease, and offered new sexual and commercial freedoms through its rituals of discovery, but many unsolved problems remain. Although science has pushed aside many demons and demigods, and revealed a cosmos more intricate and awesome than anything produced by pure imagination, there are new troubles in the peculiar form of paradise that it has created. This has precipitated new questions about whether it has the popular support to meet the future challenges of food and water, urban sprawl, disease, pollution, security, energy, and education.
Even while the public hungers for new gadgets and drugs, it seems increasingly intolerant of grand, technical fixes. In areas like genetic engineering, germ warfare, global warming, nuclear power, and the proliferation of nuclear arms, the public has also come to fear the potential consequences of unfettered science and technology.
Due to tension between science and the public, new barriers have been thrown up to research involving deadly pathogens, stem cells, and human cloning.
With the environmental movement of the 1960s, some of the doubts about science began. Also, traditional beliefs have been disturbed by science, which has caused an even deeper unease. Stunned by the increasing vigor of fundamentalist religion worldwide on the big issues of everyday life, some scientists wonder if old certainties have rushed into a sort of vacuum left by the inconclusiveness of science.
Recent opinion surveys have also gauged disaffection with science. Recently, a Harris poll found that the percentage of Americans who saw scientists as having very great prestige had declined twelve percentage points in the last quarter-century, down to 55 from 67 percent. While half of Americans believe in ghosts and a third believe in astrology, another recent Harris poll found that most of them also believe in miracles. These results are hardly an endorsement of scientific rationality in the United States.
Research priorities have become increasingly politicized in this atmosphere of ambivalence. It seems warranted to ask a question that runs counter to centuries of Western thought: Does science really matter? Do people care about it anymore? As the world marches into a century born amid fundamentalist strife in oil-producing nations and a divisive political climate in the United States and abroad, more sophisticated scientific credos like Darwin’s theory of evolution are being challenged at every turn.Do People Really Care about Science Anymore?
So, for a long time, science has mattered a lot. In the past century, advances in food, public health, and medicine helped raise life expectancy in the United States from roughly 50 to 82 years. Now exceeding seven billion, the world population between 1950 and 2000 has more than tripled. Biology played a large role in discovering the structure of DNA, making test-tube babies, and curing diseases. And, offering the hope of new treatments for cancer and other diseases, the decoding of the human genome is leading scientists toward a detailed understanding of how the body really works.
Breakthroughs in physics produced discoveries in digital electronics and in the subatomic world. American ingenuity won the space race, put men on the moon, probed distant planets, and lofted hundreds of satellites, including the Hubble Space Telescope. However, major problems arose quite quickly: for example, deactivation of the Hubble Space Telescope; acid rain; environmental toxins; the Bhopal chemical disaster in India; nuclear waste; global warming; the ozone hole; fears over genetically modified food; the fiery destruction of two space shuttles; not to mention the curse of junk e-mail (spam). Such troubles are only the tip of the iceberg, but nonetheless, they have helped feed social disenchantment with science.
The physical sciences began to lose luster and funding when the Cold War ended. After spending $3 billion, Congress killed physicists’ pre-eminent endeavor, the Superconducting Super Collider, an enormous particle accelerator.
According to the National Science Foundation (NSF), industry spending on research soared to three times that of the federal government, about $290 billion in 2003. One result of all this, is that Americans see less news about the fundamental building blocks and great shadowy vistas of the universe, and more about drugs, cell phones, advanced toys, innovative cars, and engineered foods.
The main exceptions to the downward trend in the federal science budget are for health and weapons. In 2003, spending on military research hit $69 billion, higher in fixed dollars than during the Cold War.
In the meantime, other countries are spending more on research. This is taking some of the glory that America once monopolized. According to CHI Research, Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea now account for more than a quarter of all American industrial patents. Countries that make up the European Union are working together on what will be the world’s most powerful atom smasher. The British recently flew the first probe in a quarter century to look for evidence of life on Mars. (However, the United States recently landed two Mars rovers, named Spirit and Opportunity, whose mission is to look for water and signs of life in the Martian soil and rocks.)Threats and Challenges
Cancer and the AIDS epidemic still darken many lives, despite the explosion in the life sciences. Furthermore, the flowering of biotechnology has fed worries about genetically modified foods and organisms, as well as the pending reinvention of what it means to be human. Many people worry that the growing power of genetics will sully the sanctity of human life.
Recently, the Bush administration’s Council on Bioethics issued a report warning that biotechnology in pursuit of human perfection could lead to unintended and destructive ends. Science experts worry about terrorists using advances in biology for intentional harm, perhaps on vast new scales.
The physical sciences seem to be adrift. Without the space race and the Cold War, and perhaps facing intrinsic limits, as well as declining budgets, the physical sciences are in a state of diminishing returns.
Scientists still top the list of 23 high-status professions, ahead of doctors, teachers, lawyers, and athletes, despite the decline in prestige recorded in the recent Harris poll. Contradictions are perennially identified by the NSF through polls. According to NSF’s latest numbers, 92 percent of adult Americans say they are very or moderately interested in science discoveries. Despite those poll results, only half of survey respondents knew that the Earth takes a year to revolve around the sun.Drawing the Battle Lines of Evolution
About two-thirds of Americans believe that alternatives to Darwin’s theory of evolution should be taught in public schools, alongside the bedrock concept of biology itself. Many scientists are jarred by this two-thirds number. Today, the organized opposition to the mainstream theory of evolution has become vastly more sophisticated and influential than it was 28 years ago. The leading foes of Darwin espouse a theory called intelligent design. This theory holds that purely random natural processes could never have produced humans. These opponents are led by a relatively small group of people with various academic and professional credentials, including some with advanced degrees in science and even university professorships.
Backers of intelligent design say they are simply pointing out the shortcomings in Darwin’s theory. Scientists have publicly rallied in response. In 2003, they staved off an effort by the Texas State Board of Education to have intelligent design taught alongside evolution.
Actually, through the development of technologies and medicines, science has sold itself from the start as something more than a utilitarian exercise. Einstein’s theories (which often used religious and philosophical language to explain discoveries), seemed to tell humanity something fundamental about the fabric of existence. Eye on the Future
Industry looks to short-term goals and has proven highly adept at using science to take care of itself and consumers. A far more uncertain issue is whether the federal government can successfully address issues of human welfare that lie well beyond the industrial horizon—years, decades, and even centuries ahead. Well, I wouldn’t hold your breath on that one.
As oil becomes increasingly scarce, an urgent goal here is to develop new sources of energy, which will become vitally important. Another is to better understand the nuances of climate change, for instance, how the sun and ocean affect the atmosphere. Such work is in its infancy. Another is to develop ways of countering the spread of germ weapons and nuclear arms.
In areas like waste, water use, congestion, highways, hazard mitigation, and pollution control, the world will also need a new science of cities to help coordinate planning. The number of urban dwellers is expected to grow from three billion now to six billion by 2036.
There are also some worries by scientists about a significant shift in the demographics of American graduate schools in science and engineering. By 2000, according to the latest figures from the NSF, the number of foreign students in full-time engineering programs had soared so high that it exceeded, for the first time, the steeply declining number of American students.
Whether the complex challenges of today generate a new era of scientific greatness, may depend on how a deeply conflicted public answers the question of whether science still matters. Some experts warn that if support for science falters and if the American public loses interest in it, such apathy may foster an age in which scientific elites ignore the public will and global imperatives for their own narrow interests, producing something like a dictatorship of the lab coats.Who This Book is For
This book is primarily targeted toward the domestic and international scientific community. This book is also valuable for those involved in teaching science around the world, as well as, the average technical reader or science novice. Basically, the book is targeted for all types of people and organizations around the world that are involved in scientific research. Whether it’s physicist Hideo Mabuchi’s discoveries about the interface between quantum mechanics and everyday life, or conservation biologist Gretchen Daily’s rigorous assessments of ecosystems and economics, this new generation of scientists are probing the frontiers of knowledge, and have already shown the promise (or the work) that makes senior scientists applaud in awe. What’s So Special about This Book?
Much of what we know about the world has been learned during the past few centuries, but some mysteries still remain. Apparently, Nature has not revealed to us all her secrets, but scientists are hard at work trying to decipher them.
The purpose of this book is to show the moderately technical reader that in an age where scientific discovery is everyday news, there still remains, in fact, many scientific problems that have never been solved. Actually, there are so many unsolved problems in all areas of science that the task of creating a complete list of them would be another unsolved problem.
Many of these unsolved problems are well documented in this book. The book also stresses that many problems in the natural sciences are also unsolved and that we are far from understanding the nature around us.
Throughout this book, you will learn how to penetrate the concepts and quantitative methods of the physics of fluctuations into biological sciences and medicine. This book also brings together the views (through extensive interviews) of many scientists (some controversial) from physics, biophysics, biomedical engineering, biology, and medicine. But, this list also includes: archaeologyastronomyastrophysicsbiologybotanychemistrycosmologyenergyenvironmental sciencegeologygeneticsgravityhuman originsmathematicsmedicineneurosciencepaleontologyphysicsspace sciencezoology
This book also includes a wide range of advanced scientific theories, algorithms, and techniques that can be used to access an entire world of knowledge. Those responsible for teaching science at all levels require an in-depth knowledge of these unsolved problems to allow them and their students to explore vast new frontiers, from a galaxy 12 billion light-years away, to the smallest genetic switch inside a human cell.
In this book, you will gain extensive knowledge of the problems surrounding the most challenging scientific projects in history. You will be shown ongoing research that is attempting to solve a range of scientific problems, including the origin of life itself. In other words, you will learn about the latest advanced scientific techniques in use today.
The book presents the results of extensive interviews that were conducted with more than 60 of the world’s greatest scientists (including Stephen Hawking) about how they will go about solving the problems in their respective fields. These scientists (40 of whom are Nobel laureates) were chosen because they are already glowing stars in their respective fields. Each of them and their successors are expected only to shine brighter as they move through the next 40 years and light the paths to scientific enlightenment.
Finally, this book leaves little doubt that it is nothing less than a manual/guide of the greatest unsolved scientific problems for the 21st century. No question, it will benefit all scientists and others interested in the constant changes of science and technology. One of the main goals of science and this book is to reduce ignorance and superstition of mankind!Organization of the Book
The book is organized into seven parts composed of 20 chapters. It provides a step-by-step discussion of 20 of the greatest unsolved problems in science. Given this wealth of unsolved problems in science, some 60 scientists were interviewed to predict what unanswered questions and/or unsolved problems will dominate their fields over the next 40 years. Their replies expressed not only excitement at the pace of discovery, but also a broad concern about the use of new technologies and scientific information. Almost 100 researchers were surveyed to find these scientists, asking for nominations of the persons who are the best-of-the-best in their respective fields around the globe, and who have demonstrated a once-in-a-generation insight. The response left me very optimistic. The talent pool is vast. I could have easily included 600 scientists without compromising the quality of the group.Part I: Astronomy and Cosmology
This part of the book first covers the unsolved problem of “Astronomy: The Mystery of Dark Matter.” It discusses what scientists think dark matter really is. If it’s invisible, then how does one sense its existence? A discussion ensues about how galaxies would simply disintegrate, unless there was dark matter surrounding them to sort of keep them together. Scientists also provide answers to some of the speculations surrounding the composition of dark matter, as well as why dark matter is important.
The unsolved problem of “Cosmology: The Creation of the Universe” is covered next. Here, scientists provide answers about how much they know about the beginning of the universe; what is the ultimate quest in cosmology; is anything known about the universe before one-trillionth of a second; and what needs to be known to understand creation?
Finally, Part I concludes with a discussion of “Theoretical Cosmology and Particle Physics: The Cosmological Constant Problem.” A discussion of quintessence follows.Part II: Physics and Astrophysics
Part II begins by giving you an overview of the unsolved problem of “Gravity: The Construction of a Consistent Quantum Theory of Gravity.” Here, scientists provide answers to the following questions:What are some of the unusual features of quantum mechanics?What is the difficulty? How would our understanding of gravity be affected?Why is this problem important?
A discussion of how general relativity produces gravity is also presented.
Next, this part covers the unsolved problem of “Particle Physics: The Mechanism That Makes Fundamental Mass.” Once again, here, scientists provide answers to the following questions:What is the standard model?What is the problem? Does “electroweak breaking” affect the macroscopic world? When are scientists likely to solve this problem?
In addition, an update is presented on the possible discovery of the “god particle.”
Part II also discusses “Particle Physics and Astrophysics: The Solar Neutrino Problem.” This problem is partially solved but not fully understood. Scientists provide answers as to why there is strong evidence that neutrinos have mass and that electron neutrinos emitted in the core of the sun transform into other neutrinos via oscillations on their way to the Earth. But, what are neutrinos? According to scientists, there are three types, or “flavors,” of neutrinos, one of which is associated with the electron, one of which is associated with the muon, and one of which is associated with the tau lepton. When neutrinos are initially produced, they spin in a very specific way. Also, an update on the Solar Neutrino Problem (SNO) measurement of neutrino oscillations and masses is presented.
This part covers the “Astrophysics: The Source of Gamma-Ray Bursts” unsolved problem. Here, scientists answer the following questions:What is a gamma-ray burst?Why do scientists study gamma-ray bursts? What do we know, and what don’t we know?How will the mystery be solved, or has it been?
A discussion of changes in the gamma-ray burst problem is also presented.
Next, Part II presents the unsolved problem of “Theoretical High-Energy Physics: The Unification of the Basic Forces.” Again, scientists answer the following questions:What does unification mean? What are some examples of unification? Which forces have not been unified? Are other forces such as friction unified? What is the best candidate for unification? What is a grand unification theory (GUT)?
Finally, Part II covers the unsolved problem of “Solid State Physics: The Mechanism Behind High-Temperature Superconductors.”Part III: Biology and Paleontology
Part III opens up by showing you how the unsolved problem in “Biology: How the Basic Processes of Life are Carried Out by DNA and Proteins” is being addressed. The following questions are answered by scientists:What is DNA? What is the challenge? How important is it to understand DNA? How will this knowledge affect our lives?
Next, this part discusses the unsolved problem of “Biology: Protein Folding.” It covers how scientists plan to unravel the mystery of protein folding by looking at the early studies first, and then noticing that certain diseases are characterized by extensive protein deposits in certain tissues. With regards to further studies on this unsolved problem, scientists are working in relative obscurity. These protein biochemists have discovered how a completely unfolded protein, with hundreds of millions of potential folded states to choose from, consistently found the correct one—and did so within seconds to minutes. Temperature sensitivity is discussed next, as well as Familial Amyloidotic Polyneuropathy (FAP), Alzheimer’s disease, Mad Cow disease, and other species. Nevertheless, despite the examples of FAP, Alzheimer’s disease, and Mad Cow disease, in which the problem derives from accumulation of toxic, insoluble gunk, many human diseases arise from protein misfolding, which leaves too little of the normal protein to do its job properly.
Finally, Part III concludes with a discussion of the unsolved problem of “Paleontology: How Present-Day Microbiological Information Can Be Used to Reconstruct ’The Ancient Tree of Life.’”Part IV: Neuroscience
Part IV opens up with a discussion of the unsolved problem of “Free Will.” In this part, scientists answer the questions: How is it that humans have the freedom to decide and act? What plays a role in free will?
Finally, this part of the book concludes with the unsolved problem of “Consciousness.” Here, scientists explain the unsolved problems of:Sleep and dreaming, especially lucid dreamingVoluntary control of internal states (biofeedback, meditation, etc.)Enhancement of creativity and learningArtificial intelligence applications in neuroscience (artificial neural networks, human/computer interfaces, etc.)Relationships between brain states and electromagnetic fieldsPsychoneuroimmunology (effects of psychological states upon the immune system)Extraordinary human abilities (communicative and energetic anomalies associated with altered states of consciousness)Part V: Geology
This chapter covers the unsolved problem of “The Dynamics of the Inner Earth.” Revealing Earth’s deepest secrets is the primary theme of the discussion here. In other words, in work that promises to advance understanding about the origin and dynamics of Earth’s iron-rich inner core and the generation of the planet’s magnetic field, scientists have found that the elastic properties of iron are quite different at extremely high temperatures than at low temperatures.
Finally, Part V concludes with a discussion of the unsolved problem of “Earthquake Predicting.” A scientific analysis is conducted of the seismic risk issue: earthquake prediction. The goal of earthquake prediction is to give warning of potentially damaging earthquakes early enough to allow appropriate response to the disaster, enabling people to minimize loss of life and damage.Part VI: Chemistry
This part of the book discusses the unsolved problem of “How Microscopic Atomic Forces Produce Various Macroscopic Behaviors.” The areas of physical chemistry, microscopic systems, and macroscopic systems are also discussed.
Finally, Part VI concludes with coverage of the unsolved problem of “The Fabrication and Manipulation of Carbon-Based Structures (Fullerenes).” Nanostructures’ fabrication from carbon nanocones and the design and functionality of a “nanoplotter” are also examined.Part VII: Energy
This last part of the book discusses the unsolved problem of “Electrical Energy: Free Energy—The Quantum Mechanical Vacuum.” The final secret of free energy and the free electrical energy work of Nikola Tesla are discussed at length.
The final chapter of this book is composed of the unsolved problems of “Nuclear Fusion and Waste.” Nuclear fusion energy—the harvesting of energy from the same reaction that powers the sun—is discussed at length. The dream of harvesting energy from the same reaction that powers our sun has been around since 1920, when Arthur Eddington suggested that the energy of the sun and stars was a product of the fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium. The nuclear fusion reaction involves the binding together of hydrogen atoms, creating helium. Current fusion research was big news in 1989 when it was reported that scientists had achieved fusion at room temperatures with simple equipment. A fusion power plant—a full-scale fusion reactor capable of generating 1,000 MW (1 MW = 1 million watts) of electricity, comparable to a conventional nuclear power plant—would be a very large and complex machine. The advantages/disadvantages of fusion are also discussed.
Finally, this chapter also discusses how to permanently store nuclear waste or eliminate it altogether. This has been one of the hardest challenges of the last 50 years in America. The storage of nuclear waste in other countries is also discussed.Conventions
This book has several conventions to guide you through the text and help you find important facts, notes, cautions, and warnings:
Sidebars: We use sidebars to highlight related information, give an example, discuss an item in greater detail, or help you make sense of the swirl of terms, acronyms, and abbreviations so abundant to the subject. The sidebars are meant to supplement each chapter’s topic. If you’re in a hurry on a cover-to-cover read, skip the sidebars. If you’re quickly flipping through the book looking for juicy information, read only the sidebars.
Notes: A note highlights a special point of interest about a topic.
Caution: A caution tells you to watch your step to avoid any problems.
Warning: A warning alerts you to the fact that a problem is imminent or will probably occur.
—John R. Vacca
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